The story of the Brussels Sprout

 Ah, the Brussels Sprout.

 I always think that this poor tiny defenceless vegetable gets too much hate. True, it's not the most visually appealing vegetable, and it is not perhaps the best tasting. But it does seem to me that in this season of peace and goodwill, we should perhaps extend a small bit of kindness to this humble accompaniment to the Christmas dinner table.

I, like many others reading this blog, have probably eaten and drunk far too much over the last few days and currently have no idea what day it actually is. Food hasn't been too far from my mind and whilst hunting in the fridge for some Christmas leftovers, I was surprised to see that for once, Brussels Sprouts were not included in the remains of our Christmas feast. The brain fog caused by food and drink means I'm currently incapable of proper scientific thought and I found myself thinking about the Brussels Sprout. Where did it come from? When -and why did we start eating it? Does it have much nutritional value and why the hate?

So, a simple article this week: The story of the Brussels Sprout!

The Brussels Sprout, as the name gives away, first were cultivated in the 13th century near Brussels.  They grow best at a moderate temperature of 15 - 18 celsius, and during the 16th century, their cultivation spread throughout cooler parts of Northern Europe. They eventually made their way to Britain by the 17th century.  It's unclear when they made their way to the Americas, but it is known that they were grown in Louisiana by French Settlers around the 1920s.  One theory is that Thomas Jefferson brought Brussel sprouts to America from France where he grew them in his experimental garden. 

They eventually made their way to Mexico; where the climate allows for almost year round production. Mexico currently has the second highest in export of Brussels Sprouts - second only to the Netherlands.

But the Brussels Sprout didn't always look how it does now. Brussels Sprout are only descendants of a type of plant called Brassica Oleracea. When uncultivated, Brassica oleracea is known as wild cabbage. This species originated from populations of plants in the Eastern Mediterranean. Its early days are still a bit of a mystery, but we do know that references to the plant date back to about the sixth century B.C.

Brassica Oleracea - wild cabbage.

Eventually, it was cultivated and gradually became an important crop plant - giving us many vegetables we now know and eat. Cousins of the Brussels sprout include Broccoli, cabbage, and kale.  They are all part of the Brassicaceae family, and all share the name Brassica oleracea. 

These vegetables are part of what we call 'cultivar groups'. What these means is that seeds of the wild plant were taken up and grown in cultivation - i.e. a garden or tended field giving us a cultivar. Over time, those cultivating the plants noticed useful characteristics that some of the plants had. For example, larger leaves or thick stems.  Plants with these characteristics would be selected and allowed to propagate - i.e. produce offspring (Side note: it always used to confuse me how plants actually 'breed' -I mean, it’s not exactly 'mobile'. So quick lesson in plant sex ed: plants are able to produce clones of each other, but they do have sexual organs that have gametes - or half of their genetic information. Pollen is basically plant sperm whilst flowers are the ovary - I'm not making this up.  So anyway, if a mummy plant and a daddy plant are in love, a person comes along, takes the pollen from one plant and deposits it on the flower of another plant, and a beautiful new baby seedling comes along. Obviously, there's a bit more to it than that but I'm not a botanist. Lesson over). These offspring would hopefully have the useful characteristics and also be selected for breeding purposes. Eventually, these characteristics would become overlarge and emphasized.  Each cultivar group would have originated from a different characteristic of the original plant being selected and bred for.  

One of these cultivar groups is the Gemmifera group- or the bud producing groups. This is where sprouts and Brussels sprouts belong. It's actually only the buds of the plant that we eat- the name Brussels Sprouts refers to the entire plant. This group would have come along when botanists selected plants that produced large buds along their thick upright stem. At some point, someone realised that you could eat the buds, and in a move that would be judged as controversial based on the amount of hate the sprouts get, declared that it was actually pretty tasty.

A Brussels sprout plant. 

Whether a sprout is tasty or not is a very contentious point, with their taste profile being described as anything from bitter to sweet to nutty to salty to disgusting to wonderful. 

In the 1990s, it was discovered by Hans van Doorn that the bitterness of the sprouts was caused by two chemicals: sinigrin and progoitrin. Sinigrin is also found in mustard and is part of the Brussels sprouts defence system. When the growing sprout is attacked by a hungry herbivore, Sinigrin is broken down into allyl isothiocyanate - a pungent awful-tasting compound, deterring the hungry herbivore. This effect is known as the mustard oil bomb. Interestingly, sinigrin may also have anti-cancer and antibacterial properties and is being investigated for use in tumor prevention. Progoitrin is also involved in the Brussels sprout defence system and releases the bitter tasting goitrin.

Sinigrin

Progoitrin 

This discovery allowed for cross-breeding (back to mummy plant and daddy plant) allowing for the production of Brussel sprouts with lower levels of sinigrin and progoitrin, arguably improving the flavour. 

Still, some people will still insist that Brussel sprouts taste absolutely revolting even with the lower levels of these chemicals. The answer to why this is the case may lie in human genetics. It possible that a certain human gene TAS2R38 may be part of the reason some people really hate Brussel Sprouts. 

This gene, discovered in 2003, is involved in making a protein involved in producing a taste receptor. These are different proteins that are found on the surface of your tongue. How taste works is that some molecules in food have shapes that are designed to lock into certain taste receptors, sending off signals that tell you what you are tasting- for example, something sweet, or something salty.  In the case of TAS2R38, it's involved in producing bitter taste receptors. TAS2R38 is not the only gene for bitter taste receptors, but specific bitter taste receptor is produces is designed to lock with a chemical called Phenylthiocarbamide. Bit of a mouthful so it's usually just called PTC. PTC, as expected, tastes extremely bitter. It's not usually in the human diet - but chemicals of a very similar structure are found in Brussels sprouts. 

Thing is, not everyone has a gene variant of TAS2R38 that codes for a functioning version of this specific taste receptor. Some people have a variant that doesn't work at all.  This means that those lucky people can't detect the taste of PTC, and can eat as many Brussel sprouts as they want without them tasting bitter at al So if you don't like Brussel sprouts, it may not be your fault -it may be your genetics! 

Interesting fact. PTC was once used for paternity testing. If a father can taste the PTC and his child could not, odds are that he wasn't the biological father. This was all before genetic testing was actually possible.  

Also affecting the taste of a Brussels Sprout is whether it's been exposed to a frost- they actually taste better if they have. Brussel Sprouts produce their own antifreeze to prevent them freezing to death. They release enzymes that break down their energy store-made up of starch, into sugars. These sugars spread out within the plant tissue and lower the freezing point- this means the frost isn't enough to freeze them. It's a bit like scattering salt on a road. The sugars released make the buds taste sweeter and balance out the sour or bitter chemicals.  So, it makes scientific sense that a sprout is better after a touch of frost. A bit of frostiness makes the whole thing sweeter- could be a rule of life! 

So now we have established why Brussel sprouts taste the way they do, but we have to ask what benefit is there to actually eating them? I mean, surely you would have to eat a whole plate of them to have much nutritional benefit. And considering a load of us probably roast them into caramelized oblivion with a load of butter and oil before we eat them, do they give us any nutritional benefit at all and just become bad for us?

Well, Brussels sprouts are actually 'superfoods'. I'm not a massive fan of that label but they are very good for you. They are low in calories but high in fibre which is great for digestion - especially after the fun of Christmas food and drinking. They also have high levels of Vitamin C, which is needed for immune function and tissue repair, and Vitamin K which is needed for bone health. Vitamins aside, they are high in antioxidants which is really great for preventing damage to cells

They also have sulforaphane. This is a type of chemical that is the subject of anti-cancer research and has been for years. It may have some use in stopping tumours from proliferating and may also trigger apoptosis - or cell death. There's not much good clinical evidence at the moment suggesting eating Brussel sprouts reduces your cancer risk- but the research is ongoing. It has also been linked to antidiabetic and anti-obesity effects and therefore may be a good dietary supplement. So, we should definitely be eating them a bit more! They deserve a place at the dinner plate beyond Christmas day. A Brussels sprout should be for life and not just Christmas! 

BBC did a Christmas advert back in 2015 about a sprout just looking for love :(

I hope that this article helps reduce the amount of hate that Brussel Sprouts receive and extends a little bit more appreciation towards these vegetables! In short, these are wonderful little veggies with a great story, a great nutritional profile.  and a genetics-dependant great taste. In my house, Brussels sprouts are shredded and then fried with chestnuts and bacon until caramelized. Absolutely gorgeous!

 

 

The scientific importance of Christmas .

 It's a festive time of year.  The time of year where we can't stop eating, and we embrace traditions from our families, as well as starting to embrace traditions of our own. The winter solstice has finally taken place, and the days are slowly getting lighter again, although not any warmer. A lot of Christmas seems to be purely cultural- but there is actually quite a bit of scientific reasoning behind why Christmas is really such an important time. 

So, this week, I'm looking at some of the key aspects behind the Christmas period and why they are so important from a scientific perspective. 

1.The winter solstice 

It was believed that Christmas was originally a pagan festival to celebrate the days becoming longer again. It's possible that the Ancient Romans used to call it the Dies Natalis Solis Invicti and celebrated it as the birthday of the sun God.  The theory goes that the word of Christ began to spread, the festival was revamped to celebrate the birth of God.

This year, the winter solstice arrived on the 21st of December - this year's shortest day. For those in London, the sun rose at 08:04 GMT and set again at 15:53 GMT. For those who were in the Shetland Islands, the sun rose at 09:08 GMT and set again at 14:57 GMT 

The reason the days change in length and why winter days are always shorter is due to the position of the Sun and the Earth.

The Earth revolves around the sun but also is rotating on its own axis at the same time. This is an imaginary line that passes though the Earth from the North Pole to the South Pole. Everything from the North pole to the equator is the Northern Hemisphere, whilst everything from the South Pole to the equator is the Southern Hemisphere. This means that one hemisphere of the earth is facing away from the sun at the same time the other hemisphere is facing the sun. This is how we get day and night. Rotation of the earth alone would give us equal amounts of day and night. 

But what's important to note is that the earth is actually tilted by about 23.5 degrees, away from the sun. This means that as the earth rotates itself and rotates around the sun, one hemisphere would be angled towards the Sun, whilst the other is angled away.

So, there will be a period of time where either one of the Earth's poles reach its maximum tilt away from the sun. Meanwhile, the other pole will be the closest it can be to the sun. So, this means that if the North Pole is furthest from the sun, the South pole will be closest to the sun. So, the Northern hemisphere will be experiencing the least amount of daylight, whilst the Southern Hemisphere experiences the most.   

The Earth continues to orbit the sun, so the Northern hemisphere is currently starting to tilt more towards the sun each day.  Minute by minute, the sun is lasting longer and longer in the sky. Its rising a little earlier each day and letting a little later each day. It's official- those in the Northern Hemisphere are half way though the dark. 

Credit to BBC news, 2025

2.The biological importance of celebrating during the winter.

There is evidence that the winter solstice was celebrated back in the New Stone Age, and there was both practical and biological reasoning for this.  Winter would have been a time for scarcity so at first it doesn't seem to make much sense to have a feast in the middle of it. But because of this scarcity, livestock would be slaughtered to avoid having to feed them.  This actually meant there would be a plentiful supply of fresh meat for feasting.  Feasting would also have been essential for survival- as the cold would have increased the calories that these early humans would need. 

It has also been shown that celebrating together releases Oxytocin, a hormone needed for emotional connection and regulation, as well as physical health, whilst physical touch releases stress-relieving hormones. Feasting, laughing and embracing would ultimately have released hormones that would make it possible for these early humans to live and work together. 

For early humans, group living was essential for survival, meaning emotional connection was essential. Winter would have been such a time of stress, and stress, alongside the reduced daylight would have had such an impact on moods; this could have reduced group morale and increased tension dramatically within the group.  Celebrating together therefore would have been on the whole, stress relieving and therefore an important part of surviving winter. Don't suppose these early humans would have had to deal with the drama of family get-togethers once politics and wine enter the mix. 

Stonehenge is a prehistoric structure constructed around 2500 BC, believed to be used for celebrating the Winter and Summer Solstices.

3.Why Christmas lights feel so good.

Driving past Christmas lights always bring a smile to my face and I know I'm not alone in this. Christmas lights give off feelings of delight, nostalgia and peace. 

There actually is a biological reason for this.

In winter, the reduced daylight affects melatonin and serotonin. These are two hormones that are essential for mood and your body's day-to-day functioning. Melatonin is essential for sleep-wake cycles and is produced in the night to regulate the body's circadian rhythm, alerting the body to when it needs to be alert, when it needs to sleep and when it needs to eat. In winter however, the reduced sunlight and increased darkness results in more Melatonin being produced. This means the body clock can be totally disrupted, potentially leading to a person feeling tired but also struggling to sleep.  

Serotonin on the other hand is a hormone that is needed for mood, sleep, appetite, memory and digestion. Low levels of it can lead to depression and anxiety. Serotonin release is influenced by diet - with carbs triggering its release, stress, exercise, wound healing, and also sunlight. So similar to Melatonin release, the lack of daylight also reduces levels of Serotonin. As well as this, the weather conditions and it getting darker earlier contribute to reduced motivation to exercise. This also reduces Serotonin levels. Winter can also be stressful -especially with the cost of living crisis.  Combine all this with the insomnia and tiredness caused by reduced Melatonin, it’s no wonder that people can experience really low moods during the winter, and happiness can be hard to find. 

That's where the Christmas lights come in.  The brightness mimic sunlight and this leads to a boost in Serotonin and Melatonin levels. This can reset circadian rhythms and have an uplifting effect on mood.  There is also a psychological aspect. Christmas lights are often associated with positive memories and nostalgia which causes the release of the 'happiness hormone' dopamine. The release of dopamine then hijacks the pathways in the brain that control serotonin and lead to even more serotonins being released, further enhancing feelings of well-being. Christmas lights are for that reason brilliant for combating Seasonal Affective Disorder, a type of depression linked to seasonal changes. This is a great argument for why Christmas lights should be put up as early as possible!

Christmas lights in London

4.Why Christmas smells so good.

Smell has a particularly powerful effect on memory recall. The olfactory bulb is the part of the brain that processes smell and it connects directly to the amygdala, which is part of the brain that processes emotions. It is also connected to the hippocampus which processes memory. This means that smell and long-term recall are deeply linked. Olfactory pathways form deep connections with memory centres, and this may play a role in brain development during childhood. 

The spices pine, cinnamon and cloves, along with orange oils have very unique scents and are never really used for times outside of Christmas. This means that smelling them instantly activates memories of past Christmases. This also activates the emotions associated with these Christmases. Which is why we also have scent-induced nostalgia. 

As well as this, real Christmas trees release volatile organic compounds (VOC), especially a type of compound called terpenes.  These compounds interact with the emotional centres of the brain and influence emotional well-being. In particular, the terpene that gives the pine smell is alpha-pinene and is linked to reduced anxiety. Christmas trees also release Limonene, which is linked to increased alertness and mood, and Bornyl acetate, with is associated with relaxation. 

Cinnamon, clove, nutmeg and ginger also have antimicrobial properties and activate a kind of receptor in the body called TRP receptors; these are usually used in sensing heat. So, this activation creates a warming sensation even without any temperature change. 

Finally, how we experience smell changes in Winter. There is a contrast between the cold outdoor air and the warmer indoor air. Cold air is drier and carries fewer smells and therefore makes indoor smells feel intense and warmer. This increases their impact. In other words, if your December is predicted to be really cold, put up your Christmas tree early and embrace the nostalgia! 

The smells of Christmas!

5.Why we crave rich food.

In cold environments, the body has a bigger calorie demand. This basically means that the colder you are, the more calories the body wants. This is because the body needs to keep itself at a stable temperature.  Heat is lost faster when the environment is cold meaning the body needs to burn more calories to produce the energy it needs.  Fat and sugar have a high amount of energy and release it quicky. 

As well as this, fat and sugar trigger the release of serotonin which increases mood. It also leads to dopamine being released, which increases mood, and reward pathways being produced. This means that eating warm high calorie meals in winter provides stress relief (in a stressful time) and gives comfort, as well as regulating the metabolic system. 

The release of dopamine, serotonin and reward pathways in response to food would have evolved from a survival mechanism. For early humans, living in times of extreme cold, a bigger calorie demand, as well as consumption of a fuel that quickly releases energy would have been life-saving. So, a mechanism that encouraged early humans to eat as much as they could, would have evolved. If humans actually felt good after eating calorie- rich food, they would be much more likely to survive and pass this mechanism on. This mechanism still persists today.  So, over the Christmas period, when you find yourself reaching for the next mince-pie or the next chocolate, remember to thank your early ancestors! Their survival is the reason why you like sweetness!

The food of Christmas!

That's all from me this week! Wishing everyone a happy festive period-and a happy solstice! May your family and friendly gatherings release Oxytocin and reduce your stress. May Christmas lights increase your melatonin and serotonin, and your Christmas smells of memory and nostalgia. Finally, may you get all the sweetness your body craves!

Jess x

The five with two: Winning a Nobel Prize twice.

The five Scientists who won two Nobel Prizes.

 

Seven recipients have been awarded the Nobel Prize more than once. Two of them were organisations - the International Committee of the Red Cross has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize three times, and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize two times. The remaining seven were all scientists.

 

This week I'm doing a profile on the five scientists who managed to pull off not just one Nobel Prize- but two. This list is arranged in date order, based on the awarding of the second Nobel Prize. 

 

1.Marie Curie. 

 

Marie Curie 

This incredible scientist was the first person to ever win more than two Nobel Prizes, as well as the first woman to ever win a Nobel Prize. 

She, alongside her husband Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903, for their work on radiation. Previously, radiation was believed to be caused by some sort of external effect - like light exposure or chemical state. What these three proved is that radiation, more precisely radiation being emitted by uranium was not altered by temperature pressure or chemical state. Reacting uranium chemically or crushing it did not change the radiation it was emitting. This allowed them to conclude that the radiation came from the atom itself - proving for the first times that atoms were not stable. Marie Curie actually coined the term 'radioactivity', and it soon became a brand new branch of physics. This left the doors of physics wide open to new aspects; nuclear physics, quantum theory, and atomic energy to name a few.  The doors of medicine were also violently opened leading to medical radiation therapy.

 

Henri Becquerel, Pierre Curie and Marie Curie.

Initially, the committee only intended to honour Pierre Curie and Becquerel. Luckily, Pierre complained after being alerted by committee member Magnus Gosta Mittag-Leffler, and Marie's name was added to the nomination. Pierre Curie- the ultimate green flag! This actually made Pierre Curie and Marie Curie the first married couple to win the Nobel Prize. Their daughter Irene and her husband Frederic Joliot were the second.

In 1911, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded solely to her.  This made Marie Curie not just the first person to be awarded two Nobel Prizes, but the first person to win two Nobel Prizes in two different sciences.  Professor Curie remains the only person to have achieved this; the remaining scientists in this exclusive club won two Nobel Prizes in the same science or were awarded one Nobel Prize for Chemistry and another for peace. 

 

The 1911 prize was awarded to her for her discovery of the elements radium and polonium, as well as the isolation of radium.  She was able to prove that these two elements are able to spontaneously decay into other elements and continuously release energy. This also suggested that atoms contained huge amounts of internal energy- which later fed directly into Einstein's famous equation E = mc^2. Polonium also helped prove that there were different types of radiation as it showed alpha radiation - it emitted two protons and two neutrons, whilst radium was able to show both alpha and beta radiation (emitting an electron) based on the isotope. This is another reason why Curie's work was so important- it led to more understanding of the isotope concept; where two atoms of the same element can have a different number of neutrons. 

 

 Initially, the chair of the Nobel committee Svante Arrhenius tried to prevent her attendance at the official ceremony stating out that her moral standing was in question. That same year, it was discovered that Curie has been having an affair with physicist Paul Langevin, a man five years younger than her, who was estranged from his wife. Curie was seen as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker. In a moment of pure badass-ness, she stated that she would be present at the official ceremony as there ‘is no relation between her scientific work and the facts of her private life'. 

 

2.Linus Pauling. 

Linus Pauling

Linus Pauling became the second scientist to be awarded two Nobel Prizes. His first Nobel was in Chemistry and was awarded in 1954 for his research into the nature of the chemical bond.  Pauling had been investigating why some atoms are held together in molecules. For example, hydrogen atoms bond to each other to create a diatomic molecule but it wasn't clear why this was happening.  Linus Pauling was the first to suggest that orbitals, the region of space that electrons inhabit, were combining to create a chemical bond.  The way these orbitals combined determined why some of these chemical bonds were strong and some were weak. This also allowed him to explain molecular shapes -the shapes in space that molecules form. Those currently doing A level chemistry probably won't thank him for that considering that they have to remember the shapes that molecules are able to form. They also probably won't thank him for his discovery of electronegativity. But this made it possible to determine chemical reactivity. His work on bonding also helped predict the structure of proteins - making his work incredibly influential in both chemistry and biology. 

 

In 1962, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.  This was for his work and campaigns against nuclear testing and nuclear armament. Pauling was a member of the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, chaired by Albert Einstein; its aim to warn the publics of the dangers of nuclear weapons. The US state department denied him a passport in 1952 due to his political activism, almost preventing him from speaking at a scientific conference in London. His full passport was not restored until 1954- just before the official ceremony in Stockholm, where he received his first Nobel.  Pauling signed the Russel-Einstein Manifesto in July 1955, which highlighted dangers of nuclear weapons and urged for peaceful resolutions to conflict, and supported the 1955 Mainau Declaration which appealed against the use of nuclear weapons. In 1957, Pauling circulated a petition amongst scientists, calling for a halt on nuclear testing and in 1958, he and his wife Ava presented a petition to the UN secretary General calling for a halt on nuclear weapon testing. Also in 1958, Pauling took part in televised debate about nuclear fallout causing mutations and published 'No more war!', calling for nuclear weapons testing to be stopped but also an end to war itself to stop. Pauling supported the work of the Committee for Nuclear Information, which conclusively demonstrated in 1961 that above-ground nuclear testing posed public health risks as radioactive fallout would be spread though the milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass.  This resulted in a ban on above-ground nuclear weapon testing.

 

Pauling remains the only person to have received two unshared Nobel Prizes. However, Pauling regretted that his wife was not awarded the Nobel Peace Prize alongside him, acknowledging her deep involvement in their peace work.

Ava Helen Miller and Linus Pauling

3.John Bardeen

John Bardeen 

 

John Bardeen was the third scientist to join the club, being awarded two Nobel Prizes in Physics, in 1956 and 1972.

His first prize was shared with William Shockley and Walter Brattain, and for the invention of the transistor.  The transistor is a device that controls the flow of electrical current. An electrical current is the flow of electrons moving from the battery to the electrical device and back again, turning it on. Before transistors was invented, electronics used vacuum tubes. These tubes allowed electrons to move in one direction; from the battery to the electronic device and also allowed for amplification - changing the voltage ever so slightly could increase the current dramatically- meaning it could travel further and supply more electricity. This meant that they enabled long-distance communication and early computers. But they had their drawbacks. They needed an insane amount of power as they needed constant heating and were absolutely massive. They were also fragile and never lasted long. 

Bardeen, Shockley and Brattain (L to R)

Transistors in the other hand could were tiny, only required a small electrical signal to amplify the current, needed less power and lasted far longer. This allowed for the 'information age' to begin. Computers were able to become portable, leading to the development of smartphones and microprocessors. The transistor even made the Internet possible, completely changing civilization. 

His second prize in 1972 was shared with Leon Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer for explaining how superconductivity occurs. 

Schrieffer, Bardeen and Cooper (left to right)

Superconductivity is a phenomena that explains how certain materials conduct electricity with zero resistance at certain temperatures. Resistance is a bit of a problem with electricity. The electrical current is a flow of electrons with the energy needed for electricity. When these electrons get too hot, they vibrate; this reduces their flow and causes some electrical energy to be wasted.  Every circuit has this problem. But when the temperature is dropped to a certain temperature, there is suddenly absolutely no resistance at all. This also means that the current can flow indefinitely- and no power input is required- they can carry on for years. These three devised 'BCS theory' -which explained how the electrons actually work together to cause superconductivity. 

 This phenomena has been essential to multiple breakthroughs in Physics and also Medicine. The work of Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer also led to the discovery that superconductivity can generate large magnetic fields. This ultimately led to the developments of MRI machines, particle accelerators, quantum computers and Maglev trains- the trains that are ultra-fast and quiet. 

 

4. Frederick Sanger

 

Frederick Sanger

In 1980, Frederick Sanger received his second Nobel Prize in Chemistry, having received his first in 1958. 

His first prize was awarded for his determination of the amino acid sequence of insulin.  This was the first time that a protein was proven to have a specific chemical structure. Before, it was thought that protein structure might be random This allowed for chemical structure to be connected to biological function. This ultimately led to the development of synthesizing proteins. This would have saved the lives of many diabetic patients as it paved the way for biosynthetic insulin. It also led to understanding of how mutations affect protein structure and function, potentially saving even more lives. 

In 1980, he, Walter Gilbert and Paul Berg received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing the 'Sanger Method'. This method was incredibly impactful in modern biology as this allowed for scientists to read the genetic code- the ATCG bases that make up a gene for the first time. 

Sanger, Berg and Gilbert. 

Sanger sequencing works by labelling each base with a different label and letting the DNA synthesize. When a base is added, it gives up a precise signal. This makes it possible to detect whether an A, T, C, or G has been added. 

This ultimately made genome sequencing possible and for genes to be mapped precisely. This led to developments in the Human Genome Project, where the human genome was mapped for the first time. Sanger sequencing was the gold standard for years and led to so many developments in genetic disease, evolutionary biology and also biotechnology. DNA sequencing is used routinely in medicine, research and forensic research. 

Frederick Sanger has truly made a massive impact in medicine and modern molecular biology, and many lives were saved due to him and his colleagues work. 

 

5.Karl Barry Sharpless 

Karl Barry Sharpless

Karl Barry Sharpless is a very recent addition, having been awarded his second Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2022. His first one was awarded in 2001 and shared with William S Knowles and Ryoji Noyori for their work on asymmetric catalysts. 

Sharpless, Noyori and Knowles.

A catalyst is a chemical that is needed to speed up the rate of a reaction. What can be a problem with biological molecules is that they are able to form mirror-images of themselves but only one of these 'reflections' actually works in the body.  When synthesizing these molecules in a lab, catalysts are used to form these biological molecules -but form a mixture of both mirror images. It's impossible to predict how many of each will form- it's totally random.  Using these mixtures can cause reduced efficacy as well as side effects.  Using an asymmetric catalyst means that chemists can control this effect, only producing the molecule they actually want. 

 

His 2022 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was shared with Morton Meldal and Carolyn Bertozzi for their development of click chemistry and biorthogonal chemistry. Click chemistry describes reactions that are high yielding and simple to perform.  Biorthogonal chemistry refers to click chemistry that occurs within living systems - but do not interfere with natural biological processes. Essentially, Sharpless, Meldal and Bertozzi were able to find ways in which probes- used in medicine, could be attached easily and simply to biomolecules in cells for detection and treatment. They also developed drug conjugation -how a drug can be linked to a biological molecule for stability or delivery. This is a massive development in precision therapies and personalised medicine, allowing for more efficient treatment with reduced side effects. 

 

Bertozzi, Meldal and Sharpless

It is a huge honour to even be given one Nobel Prize, and it can be regarded as the pinnacle of a career.  Many scientists cannot even hope to win one of these prizes, let alone two.  It can be seen in this article that those who won two Nobel Prizes made discoveries that changed and continue to change the world. Their discoveries also transformed the world beyond their chosen science. For example, physicist Marie Curie changed medicine, whilst physicist John Bardeen changed electronics and communication. It will also be noted that all their discoveries still play an impact on our world today - radiation is still essential for medicine more than a hundred years after its discovery, or in the case of Karl Barry Sharpless, will continue to shape the world. I think this is part of the honour of a Nobel Prize. The acknowledgment that your hard work, with its associated disappointments, failed experiments and flipping hard work will not just affect your generation; it will continue to resonate and inspire scientists and researchers years and years after you are gone. 

All feeling like outsiders together: Imposter syndrome

It's a sad truth that the majority, if not all, of PhD students will experience imposter syndrome, otherwise known as the Impostor Phenomenon. The syndrome is there in every laboratory and every scientific research faculty. 

 

Symptoms of imposter syndrome include;

 

1. Self-doubt. 

 

This is the major one.  Every PhD student will worry about their abilities and their capabilities. Despite amazing project results, amazing feedback and amazing ideas, a person with self-doubt will worry that they are not skilled enough or intelligent enough. Any achievements are because of luck and because someone else helped them or gave them the idea. 

 

 

 

 

2. Fear of being seen or exposed as incompetent or a fraud.

 

Also, a major one for PhD students. PhD students will worry that they didn't deserve to even be accepted onto their PhD in the first place and somehow, they tricked their way onto their programme. Every mistake and failure adds to this fear and one day, you will be asked to leave because you should never have been there in the first place.  This can manifest in trying to avoid activities that might be judgemental, like presenting at conferences or even asking questions in seminars. 

 

3. Anxiety about not living up to expectations.

 

Every PhD student will worry about this, but it can become even worse for a student dealing with imposter syndrome. A person with imposter syndrome may worry that they will disappoint their supervisor to such a degree that they will ruin their entire programme- it also adds to the fear that they are incompetent and to their anxiety that they aren't good enough. Students may overprepare for their meetings with supervisors and rehearse what they will say to their supervisors. They may struggle with deadlines as they feel their work has to be completely perfect before its shared.

 

 

 

4.Overthinking.

 

Everyone over-thinks about something. But for those with Imposter Syndrome, overthinking can spiral into worse-case scenarios. A small choice about which reagent to buy turns from weighing up the pros and cons of each product, into thoughts that if you don't do it today, you won't complete the experiment and then fail. It becomes difficult to make any small decision- as each decision is a minefield of pros, cons and then paths that lead from that one choice. If you order that one, it could arrive late, you can't do the experiment, you will fail. But if you order that one and it arrives on time, you might find it's just awful and the experiment won't work. 

 

 

 

 

5.Self-criticism 

 

Doubting yourself can lead to self-criticism where a person is cruel to themselves because of their perceived failures. A person's inner dialogue, and the words they use to describe themselves, are harsh and uses language that they would never direct towards anyone else. This includes words like 'stupid' and 'idiot', and phases like 'why can't I get anything right?'. Some people, especially Brits might be self-deprecating at times - I call myself an idiot several times a day. But self-deprecation is meant to be humorous and varies with context. Self-criticism is constant and dominates a person's language. A person struggling with this may reject reassurance and appear uncomfortable with compliments. The words and sentiment may appear disproportionate- 'I messed up this experiment, I'm totally useless'. 

 

 

 

6 Depression.

 

This is more of a result of imposter syndrome rather than symptom itself but is still a major part of it. Eventually, all the fear and doubt and overthinking can stress the brain so much it becomes exhausted. The body's stress response leads to cortisol levels becoming so high that mood becomes dysregulated and contributes to depression. Cognitive resources are used up, and it becomes difficult to be positive or even focus- but this lack of focus can result in failing experiments or difficulty in research. This starts a vicious cycle where the imposter syndrome flares up again.  Depression and Imposter Syndrome come hand in hand. A student may struggle to set up experiments. analyse data and plan their next steps. They may appear to be deliberately procrastinating and come across as frustrated, irritable or withdrawn.

 

 

 

This isn't even including the physical symptoms which may include, although not limited to:

 

1. Back pain - caused by the body constantly being in a tense state.

 

2.Neck and shoulder tightness - also caused by the tension in the body.

 

3.Tiredness and fatigue - the brain's cognitive resources are being used up.

 

4.Headaches and migraines - caused by stress and tension.

 

5. Digestive issues - if the body is using up all its resources on the brain, it's not going to be giving much energy to the stomach and gut.

 

6.Chest pain and tightness - caused by stress and adrenaline.

 

7. Fidgeting and restlessness - the mind is on alert constantly so the body just cannot relax.

 

8.Weakened immune system. Yep, stress can lead to more illnesses. The body can't give the resources it needs to the immune system, and it gets weaker and stretched. 

 

Of course, a person with Imposter Syndrome may not experience all of these symptoms but they are good warning signs to look out for. 

 

Data released by Frontiers in 2023 indicates that approximately 90% of graduate students may experience imposter syndrome in their first year.  30-50% of doctorate students drop out and report excessive stress as a significant factor. This stress can be worsened by imposter syndrome causing self-doubt and severe anxiety. 

 

Whilst imposter syndrome is associated with PhD students, they aren't the only ones who will experience it. Recent data suggests that about 80% of postdocs and researchers also experience some degree of imposter system.  Scientific environments are sadly pretty cutthroat. Funding for labs has to be fought over most of the time and researchers across the globe are racing to get their discoveries out and published before another lab gets there first. Funding can be somewhat dependent on how much high-quality research a lab can produce.  Anyone in a lab may feel that they have something to prove to justify their place. 

 

 

 

 

 

Still, it has to be asked why PhD students are more vulnerable to this syndrome than paid researchers?

 

 

There are a few reasons:

 

1.PhDs are incredibly competitive.

 

Before even getting onto a PhD, a student will have had to work incredibly hard. They will have had to send in multiple high-quality applications, knowing that multiple other students are applying for the same limited places. They will have been rejected multiple times before being accepted. It is incredibly demoralising. Once on a programme, a PhD student may feel that they have to prove themselves and justify them being accepted over several others. This contributes so much to a vulnerable mental state and leaves a student susceptible to Imposter Syndrome.

 

2.Academic hierarchy.

 

PhD students are often seen as the lowest of the low in laboratories, and they often compare themselves upwards - looking up the people who have decades of experience, long publications and reputations. These people may share their publications and their refined ideas- but not always their early drafts and failed experiments. It is also such a competitive and cutthroat environment, where status is important. Titles such as 'Professor' and 'Senior researcher' reinforce these differences in status. Instead of these titles being used to help a student find someone who could help, it just makes a student feel lowly and that they will have to be exceptional. 

 

3.PhD students already feeling stressed and overworked.

 

PhD students have a limited time to get their research done. They are also trying to learn as much as they possibly can. This means that they are trying to get as much done in a day as is humanely possible. Many students also work part-time alongside their studies and are trying to balance their PhD life and their work life. Sadly, experiments rarely work the first time they are carried out and there are multiple troubleshooting steps that have to be carried out before usable data can be generated. A tired student who is struggling with a failed experiment thinking that time is running out is very vulnerable to Imposter Syndrome. 

 

4.Financial situations.

 

PhD students do not paid. Some are on funded programmes - but they are also incredibly competitive to get on. Programmes that give you a stipend also do not give you an unlimited amount of money.  Students with a stipend can expect to get about £16,000 - £17,000 a year. With the cost of living crisis, this can be incredibly difficult to live on. In fact, it is estimated that to live comfortably in the UK, a single person needs to earn approximately £30,500 a year.  Financial worries can lead to stress-leading to an increased vulnerability to Imposter Syndrome. 

 

 

5.Power dynamics 

 

A PhD is very dependent on the relationship a student has with their supervisors. These supervisors have massive influence over thesis approval, project funding, authorship, opportunities to learn during the PhD, and also direction of the project. If a student is having difficulties with their supervisors, it can severely affect their PhD. Students may fear making mistakes or even asking questions out of worry of what their supervisor may think of them. Without asking questions, a student may even make more mistakes, making the situation even worse. 

 

 

 

 

 

So why don't we talk about it?

 

To be fair, in my experience, we are actually starting to acknowledge it. During my PhD, we used to use imposter syndrome as a way to get to know each other. I made friends in the lab by making self-deprecating jokes about my imposter syndrome. 

 

But I do think it is depressing that we just accept it as normal. We actually think that not having imposter syndrome is weird and abnormal. There is still this prevailing attitude in laboratories that PhD students are meant to be feeling like they are outsiders.  There are improvements in laboratories BUT there is still an incredibly long way to go.

 

 

 

 

 

 

For a while at least, it seems that imposter syndrome is not going to go away.

 

There's also not a cure for it... although there are some things that can potentially help:

 

1. Accept that experiments will not always work.  But that does not mean that you failed. You just found a way that doesn't work. No data is still a result- just not in the way you might have wanted. 

 

2. Celebrate the wins.  Scream in pure delight. If you are going to acknowledge the times you think of as failures, then you also need to acknowledge the times you win - no matter how small.

 

3.Be nice to yourself! This is incredibly hard, but it is effective. Acknowledge the things you did and handled well. 

 

4. Absence from laboratories day.

 

Sometimes a day away from the stressful environment can be incredibly useful. When I had a lot of experiments to do, I used to schedule one day away from the lab after I had done them. I would use this day to do all my data analysis from home, which I found a more relaxing environment. It was also good to have a self-care day away from all the labs and data. Even if you have a limited time, a day away won't make that much of a difference - especially if your brain is so overworked you aren't getting any meaningful work done anyway. 

 

5. Share the stories of when you did something stupid. 

 

Seems a bit counterproductive if you are struggling with being seen as incompetent but believe me, everyone in the lab has a stupid story of when they did something totally ridiculous. You will soon discover that everyone did something vaguely incompetent at least once. Even those you think of as the smartest and most together people in the lab. 

 

 

6. Get to know your colleagues.

 

Friends are important. Especially those who are going though it and have been through it. You need to laugh in labs, and you need to have moments of fun. These moments are so important in combating Imposter Syndrome. 

 

7.Sleep and eat.

 

A rested brain and a fed brain contribute a great deal to combating Imposter Syndrome. If a brain is tired and not receiving enough nutrients, it cannot fight and work as logically as it should, leaving you much more vulnerable to a poor mental state and Imposter Syndrome. A rested brain and a fed brain can help you out much more than you might think.