Science jokes part 2!

 I'm being grumpy, and I've been grumpy all week.  

We seemed to have spring -but then it went again. We seemed to have something resembling a warm temperature- and then it got cold again. We even had random repeating hailstorms one day last week. And to add insult to injury, we are losing an hour of sleep this weekend.

So!

I've decided that it is an adequate time for science jokes and explanations part 2. Also, because I have a mild case of writer's block and couldn't think of anything else to write. But I'm going to pretend that this was totally intentional. 

 

1.Did you hear about the horrible accident where the physicist accidentally chilled himself to absolute zero? He's 0K now. 

Absolute zero refers to the lowest possible temperature possible. In particle physics language, this means that particles have the minimum possible thermal energy. They are as still and are as cold as they absolutely can be. The temperature that this occurs is - 2743.15 celsius - or 0 kelvin. The kelvin scale measures temperature based on particle movement. Kelvin is represented as K- so absolute zero is literally 0 K.  

 

2.A man works into a bookstore and asks the clerk. "Do you have anything on Schrodinger's Cat or Pavlov?". The clerk replies "It rings a bell but I'm not sure it's here".

This combines two scientific ideas - Schrodinger's Cat and Pavlov's Dogs. 

Schrodinger's Cat was an idea in quantum physics to show how something - like an atom can exist in multiple states at once until it's measured, and an outcome is only set in stone once someone actually observes it.  Schrodinger was trying to show how ridiculous it was for quantum physics to be applied to every object. So, he suggested a thought experiment where a cat is shut in a box with a vial of poison. There is a 50% chance that the poison will be released and kill the cat- but there is no way to know if the poison has been released until the box is opened and the dead or alive cat is seen. So, until then, the cat is both dead and alive. Meanwhile, Pavlov's Dogs was an experiment by psychologist Ivan Pavlov. Simply put, every time he fed his dogs, he ran a bell. Eventually, the dogs associated the bell with food and just hearing the bell made them react- like salivating. 

 

3.Two chemists walk into a bar. The first one says "I'll have H2O." The second one looks at him strangely and says to the barkeep "I'll just have some water too." He turns to the first and asks "Why did you say it like that? We're not at work anymore". The first chemist silently curses under his breath that his assassination attempt failed.

Water is literally two hydrogen atoms bonded to an oxygen atom. This is though something called covalent bonding where an oxygen atom donates an electron to each hydrogen atom. But oxygen is able to bind to other atoms and in some cases, it also binds to another oxygen. Two hydrogen atoms and two oxygens create H202 - hydrogen peroxide, a toxic compound that won't do the body much good if ingested.  

4. A group of protesters form outside a science lab and start chanting... "What do we want? Time Travel! When do we want it? It's irrelevant!"

If time travel was possible, these protestors would be able to move backward or forward in time. Therefore, the idea of time being fixed won't apply anymore. These protesters don't need to care when they actually get the time travel because it just wouldn't matter. It's like a story about Stephen Hawking I heard once where he wanted to jokingly prove whether time travel was possible. He invited his friends to a birthday party but only sent the invites after the party had already happened. If anyone attended the party before the invites were sent, it would 'prove' that a person could have travelled into the past after receiving his or hers invite. Sadly, no one attended. 

 

5.Why was Heisenberg such a bad lover?  When he got the momentum, he couldn't find the position, and when he found the position, he couldn't muster up the momentum.

Werner Heisenberg came up with the Uncertainty Principle. It basically means that it is impossible to accurately know both the location and speed of an electron. Which basically means that you can't know both the position and exact momentum of something. So poor Heisenberg here can either find the position or find the right speed. But physics means he can't know both. 

 

6.Einstein gets on a bus heading into town. He asks the driver: “Excuse me, does the central library stop at this bus?”

This is a play on Einstein's theory of relativity.  The general idea goes that motion is relative- and nothing is absolutely 'stationary'. Everything is moving relative to something else. The Earth itself is spinning, and the bus would be moving relative to the Earth- your reference point. We are essentially imagining the Earth is stationary. But the bus could technically be selected as the reference point meaning that from a physics- sense, the library is what is moving.

7.They have just found the gene for shyness. They would have found it earlier, but it was hiding behind two other genes.

I don't think I really need to explain this one in this much detail. Genes control traits - usually height, eye colour, or hair colour for example, but there is some research suggesting that genes could influence personality traits -such as shyness. 

 

8.A chemistry teacher is recruited as a radio operator in the first world war. He soon becomes familiar with the military habit of abbreviating everything. As his unit comes under sustained attack, he is asked to urgently inform his HQ. "NaCl over NaOH! NaCl over NaOH!" he says. "NaCl over NaOH?" shouts his officer. "What do you mean?" "The base is under a salt!" came the reply.

NaCl - or sodium chloride is what is known as a salt. It's actually just table-salt. Salts are something in chemistry that is formed when an acid reacts with a base. Meanwhile, NaOH- or sodium hydroxide is a base. This is a compound that is the opposite of an acid, and it has a pH higher than 7. So, by yelling out NaCl over NaOH, this chemistry teacher is literally putting a base under a salt.  

 

GSFOAT: Greatest Science Films Of All Time.

 

Seeing as I did the best Sci Fi novels quite a few months ago, I figured I should probably get around to doing the greatest sci-fi movies of all time.  As with the best sci-fi novels, for a film to be ranked as one of the best, it needs to be both accurate - and enjoyable. I'm not interested in films that are accurate but also boring. 

 

1.Interstellar.

 

Some would say that this film went on for far too long, seeing at it went on for almost 3 hours and had so many ploy conveniences and coincidences. The ending also divides viewers with many seeing it as brilliant but with others seeing as scientific fantasy. But Interstellar did so many things brilliantly - including hiring Hans Zimmer. Interstellar is one of the few films set in space that avoids aliens invading Earth and focuses more on philosophical themes, like the survival of humanity and its place in the universe. Interstellar also was incredibly accurate, with the film working with physicist Kip Thorne, a leading expect in astrophysics and professor at Caltech.  

The black hole Gargantua is one of the most realistic depictions of a black hole ever and the idea of time dilation seen in the film is actually accurate. General relativity means that near a massive object, such as a black hole, time for someone near the black hole will move slower than for somewhere further away.  It is entirely scientifically possible that someone stuck on a planet could age differently than someone nearby. 

Still, Interstellar does have its inaccuracies. There is no evidence that humans could access time like a 5D library and messages being sent via gravity is purely theoretical.  The main characters would probably not have survived near the black hole either. Wormholes, shortcuts through spacetime are also theoretically possible and are predicted by Einstein's equations. It is however important to note they have never been physically observed- although the portrayal of what a wormhole would look like is scientifically correct. 

The science aside, Interstellar's epic scale and emotional stakes make the plot almost addictive. This is a film that combines humanity's survival with the depth and complexity of fatherhood. 

 

2.Gattaca 

 

Gattaca is built around genetic engineering and eugenics, and it's so well done that even in the decades following its release and the subsequent developments in genetic research, it still feels like a warning and not a fiction. Arguably, Gattaca is becoming more relevant . 

Genetic engineering is something that is becoming more and more of a possibility. It may be a case that parents can one day pay to make sure their child has certain genes but doesn't have genes that are considered detrimental to the child's success. The main character Vincent Freeman does not undergo any genetic editing but his genetic profile indicates a high probability of several disorders and estimated lifespan of approximately 30 years ago. The audience is instantly to confront the ethics of genetic engineering - wouldn't most parents wish for a chance to extend the life of their child, reduce their risk of pain and suffering, and allow them to be the absolute best version of themselves?  

Gattaca does not rely on spectacle but psychological tension. Instead of focusing on the science behind the genetic engineering, the story focuses on the man with inferior genetics, fighting against a bias system. In Gattaca, a genetic registry classifies those created by genetic engineering as 'valid' whilst those conceived naturally are known as 'in-valids', Whilst genetic discrimination is illegal, genotype profiling allows valids to quality for professional employment while in-valids are relegated to menial work.  Whilst genetic discrimination is not something the audience would be familiar, discrimination for characteristics outside of a person's control certainly is. 

What also makes Gattaca so well done is that many of the so-called 'valids' are found to be suffering in various ways. One character Jerome, an Olympic swimmer, falls into a deep depression after placing silver; to him, he was designed to be the best and yet is somehow not. 

Gattaca also doesn't rely on fancy futuristic gadgets and environments full of CGI. The future seen in Gattaca appears to be a slightly altered version of the world we know today. This makes Gattaca seem much more believable and even more unsettling. 

All in all, Gattaca is one of the most thought provoking, but still relatable, sci-fi films that has been created. 

 

3.The Martian

 

The novel the film was based on is included on my list of best sci fi novels, and the film itself undoubtedly deserves to be recognised for the marvel that it is. Whilst aliens coming from Mars are a common theme in science fiction, the Martian manages to turn this around completely. The titular Martian isn't some space creature trying to destroy earth - it's Mark Watney stuck on an alien planet, technically becoming an 'alien' himself. Instead of trying to destroy or defeat a hostile lifeforce, the only antagonist is an environment that is just indifferent to whether Watney lives or dies. 

What truly makes the Martian a brilliant sci -film is how logical and grounded every step is, with real science being used to solve every problem.  The science seen is precisely that- real. The Martian is known for being one of the most accurate sci-fi stories ever made.  The botany used to grow potatoes, the chemistry used to make water and the engineering used to fix experiment is not just theoretically possible - it is practical. Plants have been grown in Mars-like simulants on Earth using methods shown by Mark Watney.  Creating water using hydrogen plus oxygen is basic chemistry. Even the rendezvous in orbit as unbelievable as it might seem is grounded in real orbital physics. Still, even the best sci-fi films aren't perfect.  The opening storm that kickstarts the entire plot is completely unrealistic. Mars' atmosphere is just too thin to produce that level of force. 

Despite its logical, grounded and controlled sensationalism the Martian is incredibly compelling. In my opinion, there are two reasons for this. One reason is how real and clear the stakes are - the running out of food or equipment failures.  A degree is not required to understand any of it which makes it so much more engaging. The character of Mark Watney is the second reason. Mark Watney, wonderfully played by Matt Damon, is humorous and resilient. But he also shows relatable moments of despair and doesn't develop into the cliched human superhero that so many sci films rely on. He's a normal guy, who downplays just how elite he must logically be. To be one of the first astronauts on Mars, Mark Watney, who describes himself as 'just' a botanist must be absolutely extraordinary and one of the most highly trained individuals on Earth. He comes across as casual and self-deprecating - and we the audience actually get to see where he goes wrong. We see his mistakes and his frustration. It's a degree of relatability that you rarely see in sci -fi films. 

 

4. Contagion.

 

It's a bit controversial to call this a science fiction film and probably even more controversial to rate it on my best sci films list but bear with me - there is method to my madness.

At its core, sci-fi is arguably about exploring science and its impact. Contagion does absolutely do that by looking at epidemiology and virus transmission. There's no futuristic tech or speculation - everything in this film is plausible - as seen in the COVID 19 pandemic. This film was initially released in 2011 but experienced a surge in popularity during said pandemic- for obvious reasons. 

The film is scarily accurate. There was no exaggeration in the exponential growth of the virus, and human contact chains. There was no miracle cure, just trial, error and time.  The film didn't just show the virus - it also showed social breakdown with misinformation spreading, panic buying and distrust. As we sadly learnt from the pandemic, this is incredibly accurate.  The film itself was inspired by real-life outbreaks such as the 2002-2004 SARS outbreak, and screenwriter Scott Z Burns worked with representatives of the World Health Organisation, and medical experts. 

Of course, accuracy isn't just the only factor in a good sci-fi film. The film tracks doctors, scientists, government officials and ordinary citizen, giving a plot that is global and interconnected. The film is presented with minimal melodrama, meaning that when major events occur, they seem more shocking - but even more real and unsettling. The film's explicit tracking of time really reinforces the realism of the fil, making it been more immersive and believable. The film even still manages to create mystery and suspense - by not revealing the source of the virus until the absolute end.  Instead of several films, where the audience knows more than the characters, the viewer is placed in a situation where they know just as much as the characters desperately trying to track down the virus and its victims. 

5.2001: A Space Odyssey.

 

This space epic was released in 1968 and is still widely considered one of the greatest sci fi films ever- and one of the greatest films ever made.  The film is recognised for its scientifically accurate depiction of spaceflight and its pioneering special effects. 

At the time it was amazingly forward-thinking, having consulted scientists and engineers.  The rotating space station and ship is based on centripetal force which is still a leading concept in real space habitat design today.  The satellite technology seen, with orbital satellites and space stations, was current technology.   Meanwhile, HAL 9000 was one of the earliest serious portrayals of AI and was inspired by real concerns about automation. 

There were inaccuracies and speculation. The timeline of human space presence was optimistic to say the least. But what the film did incredibly well was showing the realism and scale of space. It also got key ideas right - for example, AI becoming a major force, and the idea of long-term human space habitation.  Before this film, sci -fi films were full of monster movies and space adventures. 2001 Space Odyssey began a new era where sci-fi became serious cinema, with realistic science becoming central. 

What was also incredibly well done with 2001: A space Odyssey is how ambiguous the themes are. Unlike a vast number of sci-fi films, A Space Odyssey is incredibly philosophical. Conventional cinematic techniques are avoided - but a wide range of themes including human evolution, extra-terrestrial life and artificial intelligence are still explored. 

As well as this, the sound in the film is amazing. Dialogue is used sparingly, helping the audience actually appreciate the silence and vastness of space.  Long sequences are accompanied only by music; but instead of using original music, classical music is used. This results in sequences that are both visually and audially beautiful. 

It is fair to say that without 2001, the other films mentioned in this list would not have ever been made. 

The Nobel Prizes that are so weird they don't seem true.

 

Today, I’m looking at the Nobel Prizes that sound as if they can't possibly be real.  They are just too weird. If these ideas and theories had been presented as plot devices for sci-fi movies, they would have been dismissed as too implausible. 

 

1. Particles committing Identity Fraud.

In 2015, Takaaji Kakita and Arthur B McDonald earned the 2015 Physics Nobel for 'Neutrino Oscillation'. 

 

                             Takaaji Kakita                                         Arthur B McDonald                                                           

 Neutrinos were first proposed in 1930 to explain energy that was missing in radioactivity. They have no charge, almost no mass and interact weakly with matter.  

The sum emits three kinds of neutrino; electron, muon and tau, with it assumed that these kinds were fixed -i.e. an electron neutrino cannot become a muon, and a tau cannot become an electron. But in 1998, Kajita's team in Japan provided evidence that neutrinos left the sun as one kind of neutrino - but arrived at Earth as a different kind.  Kajita's team was using a gigantic water tank to detect muon neutrinos in the atmosphere, but these neutrinos were disappearing. In 2001, McDonald's team were able to show that electron neutrinos from the sun were transforming into other types. The work of Kajita and McDonald proved that neutrinos change identity in flight.  These identity changes were caused by neutrinos essentially banging into each other - or oscillating with each other. Due to the fun of quantum mechanics, this proved that the neutrinos actually have mass. The Standard Model that describes fundamental particles and forces predicted massless neutrinos. This hints at new possible physics that could provide explanations for things not yet understood. For example, the slight mass of the neutrino could influence the formation of galaxies. 

2. The Universe is Humming in the background.

In 1964, it was discovered that the universe is filled with faint microwave radiation. This discovery was a complete accident and ultimately was a result of Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson thinking there were issues with their equipment.   

                        

                         

Robert Woodrow Wilson                                      Arno Allan Penzias

Penzias and Wilson were using a giant microwave antenna called the Holmdel Horn with the aim of using it for satellite communications. For this, they needed to eliminate any background noise. But despite their effects, they kept picking up a constant microwave signal coming from every direction in the sky. Initially, they thought this low frequency background noise they were detecting could be caused by faults in their equipment or interference from cities. At one point, they kicked out pigeons that were living in their antenna and removed their droppings - tactfully described as 'white dielectric material'. But the signal persistently remained. 

Eventually, this signal was discovered to be coming from the universe itself- and actually was the first evidence for the Big Bang.  In the 1960's, scientists were debating two theories regarding the origins of the universe. One theory -the Steady State theorized that the universe always had existed in the state it is now. But one theory- the Big Bang, suggested that (in the immortal words of Barenaked Ladies and the Big Bang Theory theme song,) 'our whole universe was in a hot dense state. Then nearly fourteen billion years expansion started, wait. The Earth began to cool, the autotrophs began to drool....'. As fun as the song is, I won't carry on with it. Point is, the Earth was contained in one single point and as it cooled, it expanded. But there should be leftover radiation. The heat energy had to go SOMEWHERE. What Penzias and Wilson took for interference was exactly that; the leftover radiation.  For this, they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1978. 

In effect, these scientists thought their equipment was broken, they tried removing pigeon poo from their equipment and discovered the Big Bang. 

Penzias and Wilson at the Holmdel Horn Antenna 

3 Nobel Blue LEDs. 

In essence, three scientists - Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano and Shuji Nakamura, won the 2014 Nobel prize in Physics for making a blue light. But this blue light is what made modern lighting possible- and also made your smart phone possible. 

 

Left to right, top to bottom: Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano

, Shuji Nakamura

In a blue LED, an intense blue light is produced. This might be seen as a little obvious but what's clever about it is that this light passes through a phosphor coating, which converts some of this blue light into yellow. This combination of blue and yellow will appear white. Before the invention of this blue LED, it was impossible to produce bright efficient white light using LED. This meant that LED lighting- one of the most efficient and energy saving forms of electricity, could not be used for homes or cities. Without a blue LED, it was also impossible to make a full colour spectrum that phone screens or laptop screens rely on.  Blue is needed to make Cyan and Magenta and without these two colours, coloured images could not be seen on a screen.  The blue LEDs are also much more energy efficient than other LEDs as blue light has a shorter wavelength but a higher energy. Without blue LEDs, smartphones would need to be a lot bigger to accommodate the battery you would need. Blue LEDs are the reason that your phone can be small, colourful and bright.

Between 1989-1992, the blue LED was invented by Akasaki and Amano who were working with gallium nitride. This proved crucial to making LEDs work. In 1993, Nakamura working for Nichia Corporation created the first practical blue LED. This led directly to energy efficient lightning solutions and developments in RGB screens. Nakamura actually sued Nichia Corporation in 2001 for fair compensation regarding the invention. In 2004, a Tokyo court caused shock after awarding him approximately $190 million - one of the largest invention related awards ever given to an individual researcher.  

Ultimately, three researchers made a light, won a Nobel Prize, changed the world and contributed to the world's overreliance on smartphones. 

 

 

4. Bacteria have vendettas against viruses and seek their revenge with molecular scissors. 

Bacteria, after being infected by a virus, are able to capture a small fragment of the viral DNA and store it in their own genome. If the bacterium is attacked again by the virus, the bacteria is able to access that stored DNA and convert it into RNA. The RNA can then guide a small protein called Cas9 to the matching sequence on the DNA of the re-offending virus. Cas9 cuts it, stopping the virus from replicating. 

As strange as this is, this became the basis of CRISPR gene editing which Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier for which won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2020.

                  

                   Jennifer Doudna                                   Emmanuelle Charpentier               

CRISPR itself stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats - and is the part of the genome where the viral DNA fragments can be stored. The CRISPR region is like an archive of past infections. This region was discovered in 1987 in bacteria by Yoshizumi Ishino who noticed short repeating DNA sequences which were separated by unique fragments of DNA.  In the early 2000s, researchers began noticing that these unique fragments matched viral DNA and suggested it could be some sort of immune system. It wasn't until 2012 that Doudna and Charpentier discovered that the Cas9 protein could be used to cut any DNA sequence - provided that the guide RNA took it there in the first place. The guide RNA itself could be designed to target any DNA sequence you wanted. This turned the CRISPR cas9 system into a precise genetic editing tool.  

Yoshizumi Ishino 

In short, a bacterial archive, several viral mugshots and a particularly vicious vendetta-seeking enzyme was used to create a system that was described by the Nobel Committee as 'A tool for rewriting the code of life'. 

 

5. The Universe contains invisible monsters that chew up light.

Roger Penrose, Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez won the Nobel Prize in 2020 by proving that the Milky Way has an invisible monster that chews up light. In other more scientific words, these three proved that black holes do indeed exist. 

From left to right, top to bottom: Roger Penrose, Reinhard Genzel

and Andrea Ghez.

Ultimately, a black hole is a region of space that is so dense not even light can escape it. This idea dates back to Einstein's 1915 Theory of Gravity.  Mass bends spacetime and if something were to reach a certain density within a small enough region, it would bend the spacetime so dramatically that nothing - not even light could escape. At first, this was purely theoretical and many physicists wondered if they actually existed. 

In 1965, Penrose proved that black holes could - and should naturally form in the universe. He showed that massive stars could collapse under gravity and create a singularity- a point where gravity becomes effectively infinite. When physicists say 'effectively infinite' in this context, it basically means that our understanding of gravity no longer works. 

Starting from the early 1990s, Genzel and Ghez began observing stars near the centre of the Milky Way. Over a period of approximately three decades, they noticed a star -called S2, moving insanely fast- about 7600 km/s and orbiting close to the centre of its orbit every 16 years or so. It was clearly orbiting something and using the speed and motion, they were able to calculate the mass of the object being orbited. This gave them an object about 4 million times the mass of the Sun packed into a very tiny region. The only thing this could possibly be was a Black Hole.  This proved that there was a Black Hole at the centre of our universe.

By using maths and theories predicted by Einstein, and massive telescopes (one of which was actually called Very Large Telescope- it's in Chile), a light-chewing hole was proven to exist. It's at the centre of your universe. 

 

6 Jumping genes.

Barbara McClintock received the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for showing that genes do not necessarily stay still on a chromosome and can hop around elsewhere in the genome. 

Barbara McClintock

Barbara McClintock was working with maize plants in the 1940s and 1950s and noticed some strange colour patterns in corn kernels. They would be patches of different colours and random spots appearing. It seemed that genetic traits were being turned on and off- but what was switching this switch as it were? It was suggested that some genes were somehow moving around the chromosome, switching neighbouring genes on and off. 

Almost predictably, her work was more or less ignored until the 1960s, where it was discovered that DNA actually can move. Scientists studying antibiotic resistance noticed that bacteria could gain resistance very quickly. They traced this to small mobile DNA segments in the bacteria -called Transposons that could carry antibiotic resistance genes. This transposons could jump between chromosomes and plasmids and rearrange the genome.  Crucially, they could jump between genomes of several bacteria, explaining why bacteria is able to gain antibiotic resistance so quickly. In the 1970s-1980s, scientists began finding regions of DNA in several organisms that appeared to come from transposable elements.  In 2001, researchers discovered that 45% of human DNA was essentially a genetic fossil - sequences that were left behind by transposable elements copying themselves into the genome millions of years ago. Some sequences resemble viruses and are remnants of viruses infecting our ancestors millions of years ago and leaving behind a footprint.

All in all, your genome isn't just a set of instructions. It's also an evolutionary record of DNA jumping from one place to another, hitchhiking though the genome and leaving behind a tip in a currency we can no longer use. 

 

As strange as these discoveries are, they have ultimately made a huge difference in how we live in our world today as well as understanding the world around us.  They really highlight just how funky and strange science actually can be!

The science in Bridgerton's ballrooms.

 

Like a high proportion of the British public in the last few weeks, I've been binge watching one of Netflix's most popular shows: Bridgerton. There's something about the gossip and drama all set in a regency London that is strangely appealing. 

Anyway, I've decided to pretend that my binge-watching had some purpose and method to it and was actually research for this new blog article.  It's a bit later this week as I had to finish my 'research' and by that, I mean I had to make sure that Benedict Bridgerton DID marry Sophie. I would say spoiler alert but if you have clicked on a blog article with the word 'Bridgerton' in the title, more than a week after Netflix released part 2 of season 4, think that one is a bit on you.

Anyway, this article is about the science seen in Bridgerton. Admittedly, I'm stretching a little in some cases- Bridgerton isn't exactly known for showing the revolutionary scientific advancements of the period but with a little bit of imagination and creativity, I've discovered quite a few things I can write about. 

So first up, Bridgerton is taking place roughly between 1811- 1820. This is a period of time in Britain's history called the Regency era and sits in the afterglow of the Scientific Revolution.

The Scientific Revolution was a period of time where a complete and utter transformation in scientific ideas takes place. The natural philosophy, derived from Greek ideas and traditions, which had pretty much governed Europe is overturned in favour of new ideas that are integrated with maths and rely on logic and observation. Key scientists in this era include Nicholaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.  Major advancements are made in astronomy, the 'scientific method' is devised for the first time as is the 'experimental method', and mathematical measurements are used for the first time to explain physical phenomena with algebra and calculus being invented.  Crucially, institutions designed for the research and advancement of science are established. The first of these societies is The Royal Society of London.

                                         Burlington House: Home of the Royal Society from 1873- 1967.

By the time the Regency era rolls around, the major breakthroughs of the scientific revolution have come and gone- but society is still benefiting from and developing idea based on those fundamental discoveries. For example, Newton's laws of motion have been widely accepted and now being applied to practical science, such as mechanics engineering and astronomy. These developments in chemistry and physics will start to drive the Industrial Revolution, which is estimated to have begun around 1760, with early factories being built and production of textiles becoming mechanised. The development of railways, steamships, large factories and electricity will begin around 1830.

Essentially, the characters in Bridgerton are in a world where science is no longer revolutionary but is starting to turn into technology and industry. Meanwhile, organisations such as the Royal Society and the Royal Institution are spreading -and encouraging, knowledge. These institutions are arranging public lectures that prove popular.  These lectures provide ways in which the elite can be entertained -and also be seen.

One of the most famous lecturers was Humphry Davy whose public lectures at the Royal Institution were incredibly popular. Davy made chemistry dramatic and exciting. He would demonstrate flashes of light from chemical reactions and coloured flames, along with explosions and sparks. His lectures were known as dramatic performances and public spectacles.  Davy was also an important researcher, inventing a new technique called Electrolysis which involved breaking compounds apart with electricity. Using this technique, Davy discovered the elements Potassium and Sodium. He also invented the Davy safety lamp for miners. This lamp stopped naked flames used for light igniting methane gas and causing fires. 

Humphry Davy

Science became fashionable amongst the elite- or 'the ton' as heard in Bridgerton.  Gentleman would often collect scientific instruments including globes and telescopes, which could be crafted beautifully in brass and wood.  Ultimately, science wasn't just scholarly pursuit- it was a fashionable pastime.   

So, we have the rise of the gentleman scientists. These would have been educated amateurs from the upper classes and potentially the middle class who pursued science out of curiosity and intellectual interest- and had the financial means to do so. At this stage, a scientist is not a fully professional career, meaning the only people who could actually study, and experiment would be those people who were wealthy enough not to need paid employment. 

We do actually see the concept of gentleman scientist briefly in season 3 where Colin Bridgerton visits Marina and meets her husband Sir Philip Crane. Sir Philip Crane has a title and estate and is shown to be deeply interested in botany and plant research.  He is cultivating specimens and experimenting in his greenhouse- but this work is not a profession. It is a personal intellectual pursuit. Philip has the time, space and resources to pursue this interest. 

Sir Philip Crane

Bridgerton also has quite a focus on gardens and botany. Botany, also known as natural history, was a very fashionable scientific interest in the Regency era for the educated elites. It was common for the elite to build greenhouses, experiment with cultivation and breeding and collect specimens from expeditions. Many plants now common in the UK were brought in by gentlemen botanists in the Regency era.  This includes Camellias, Chrysanthemums, Dahlias and also the Monkey Puzzle Tree - which due to its unusual appearance and exotic origin from South America became a status symbol. The pineapple was also brought into Britain from South America around this time by gentleman scientists. It was incredibly difficult to grow a pineapple in Britain's cold and damp climate, meaning that to do so, a gentleman would require greenhouses, and skilled gardeners. This meant that they became a symbol of status, displaying that a gentleman had wealth and an interest in science. 

Monkey Puzzle.

A famous example of this gentleman scientist would have been William Herschel. Born in Hanover, Herschel was working in the city of Bath. As a hobby, William Herschel began building his own telescopes due to his interest in astronomy.  In 1781, Herschel discovered Uranus which brought him fame across Europe and a royal pension from King George III.  

William Herschel

Speaking of King George III, the Regency era occurs in Great Britain due to his alleged madness. He is seen occasionally in Bridgerton, although a younger version is seen in the spin-off show Queen Charlotte.  King George III experienced episodes of confusion, manic speech, erratic behaviour and hallucinations. Whilst he would initially recover from these episodes, by 1811 his condition has become more or less permanent, and his son became Prince Regent - beginning the Regency period. 

It has been suggested that King George III had a genetic disorder called Porphyria. This condition disrupts the production of heme, a component of haemoglobin. Symptoms could include abdominal pain, neurological problems and psychiatric symptoms. Interestingly, it can change the colour of urine and there are reports suggesting that King George III was producing blue-tinted urine. 

However, the more accepted and modern theory is that King George had bipolar disorder.  It has been suggested that the blue urine was caused by medicines that the king was taking. One medicine that King George might have been consuming was gentian extract - a blue flowering plant which can turn urine blue. It has also been suggested that King George's constipation increased a type of bacteria in the gut. This bacteria produced a certain pigment which could also have been the reason for the blue urine. 

King George III 

In season 2, we have the infamous bee scene where Lord Bridgerton dies after being stung by a bee. In this time, it was known that bee stings could cause severe reactions and some people were more susceptible. But they had no idea why. Doctors believed that these severe reactions were caused by people having a 'nervous temperament' or an 'irritability of the system'.  Inflammation could be reduced by putting vinegar or ammonia on the sting or using poultices of herbs, but Regency science did not yet known about the immune system or anaphylaxis.  Some observers did notice that experienced beekeepers seemed less affected by sting. This led to some early speculation about tolerance. 

Lord Edmund Bridgerton. 

In season 3, we have the famous hot air balloon demonstration where Penelope trips and has to be rescued by Colin.  This scene is a good example of how science was fashionable. The ton attends this event to see the balloon being prepared for launch. The Montgolfier brothers had carried out the first balloon flights in 1783 and from there, they became massive public spectacles. The scientific revolution had uncovered the physics knowledge needed to understand why a balloon could rise. These balloons could be used to study air pressure at different altitudes, temperature changes and also the composition of the air. As such, they made the first experiments in meteorology and atmospheric science possible. They will also later be used for weather observation and mapping landscapes. 

The hot air balloon scene. 

What you might have noticed that in Bridgerton, the ballrooms are lit by candles.  This may be an artistic choice to make the setting look more intimate and romantic but there is some truth to this. The discovery that coal gas can be burned to give light takes place in the 1790s, with gas lighting being used publicly in London in 1807. Between 1810 and the 1820s, gas lighting spreads across London and other cities for shops, factories and theatres. Wealthy homes start to adopt it from 1820s onwards.  In later seasons of Bridgerton, we might start to see houses of the ton start using gas lighting to illuminate their ballrooms, just as the scientific revolution illuminated the gentlemen scientists of the Regency era.